Gravity

Introduction

Gravity Types

Castro can incorporate gravity as a constant, monopole approximation, or a full Poisson solve. To enable gravity in the code, set:

USE_GRAV = TRUE

in the GNUmakefile, and then turn it on in the inputs file via castro.do_grav = 1. If you want to incorporate a point mass (through castro.point_mass), you must have:

USE_POINTMASS = TRUE

in the GNUmakefile.

There are currently three options for how gravity is calculated, controlled by setting gravity.gravity_type. The options are ConstantGrav, PoissonGrav, or MonopoleGrav. Again, these are only relevant if USE_GRAV = TRUE in the GNUmakefile and castro.do_grav = 1 in the inputs file. If both of these are set then the user is required to specify the gravity type in the inputs file or the program will abort.

Note

make sure you have set the problem::center[] variable appropriately for you problem. This can be done by directly setting it in the problem_initialize() function.

Integration Strategy

Castro uses subcycling to integrate levels at different timesteps. The gravity algorithm needs to respect this to obtain full accuracy. When self-gravity is computed via a multigrid solve (gravity.gravity_type = PoissonGrav), we correct for this (though not for other gravity types). At coarse-fine interfaces, the stencil used in the Laplacian understands the coarse-fine interface and is different than the stencil used in the interior.

There are two types of solves that we discuss with AMR:

• composite solve : This is a multilevel solve, starting at a coarse level (usually level 0) and solving for the potential on all levels up to the finest level.

• level solve : This solves for the potential only on a particular level. Finer levels are ignored. At coarse-fine interfaces, the data from the coarse levels acts as Dirichlet boundary conditions for the current-level-solve.

The overall integration strategy is as follows, and is similar to the discussion in [18]. Briefly:

• At the beginning of a simulation, we do a multilevel composite solve.

  We also do a multilevel composite solve after each regrid.

• The old-time gravity on the coarse level is defined based on this composite solve, but we also do a level solve on the coarse level, and use it to determine the difference between the composite solve and the level solve, and store that in a MultiFab.

• After the hydro advance on the coarse level, we do another level solve, and use the (level solve - compositive solve) as a lagged predictor of how much we need to add back to that level solve to get an effective new-time value for phi on the coarse level, and that’s what defines the phi used for the new-time gravity

• Then we do the fine grid timestep(s), each using the same strategy

• At an AMR synchronization step across levels (see Section Synchronization Algorithm for a description of when these synchronizations occur), if we’re choosing to synchronize the gravitational field across levels (gravity.no_sync = 0) we then do a solve starting from the coarse grid that adjusts for the mismatch between the fine-grid phi and the coarse-grid phi, as well as the mismatch between the fine-grid density fluxes and the coarse-grid density fluxes, and add the resulting sync solve phi to both the coarse and the fine level

  Thus, to within the gravity error tolerance, you get the same final result as if you had done a full composite solve at the end of the timestep (assuming gravity.no_sync = 0).

Controls

• For the full Poisson solver (gravity.gravity_type = PoissonGrav), the behavior of the full Poisson solve / multigrid solver is controlled by gravity.no_sync.

• For isolated boundary conditions, and when gravity.gravity_type = PoissonGrav, the parameters gravity.max_multipole_order and gravity.direct_sum_bcs control the accuracy of the Dirichlet boundary conditions. These are described in Section 2.3.2.

• For MonopoleGrav, in 1D we must have coord_sys = 2, and in 2D we must have coord_sys = 1.

The following parameters apply to gravity solves:

• gravity.gravity_type : how should we calculate gravity? Can be ConstantGrav, PoissonGrav, or MonopoleGrav

• gravity.const_grav : if gravity.gravity_type = ConstantGrav, set the value of constant gravity (default: 0.0)

• gravity.no_sync : gravity.gravity_type = PoissonGrav, do we perform the “sync solve”? (0 or 1; default: 0)

• gravity.max_solve_level : maximum level to solve for \(\phi\) and \(\mathbf{g}\); above this level, interpolate from below (default: MAX_LEV-1)

• gravity.abs_tol : if gravity.gravity_type = PoissonGrav, this is the absolute tolerance for the Poisson solve. You can specify a single value for this tolerance (or do nothing, and get a reasonable default value), and then the absolute tolerance used by the multigrid solve is abs_tol \(\times 4\pi G\, \rho_{\text{max}}\) where \(\rho_{\text{max}}\) is the maximum value of the density on the domain. On fine levels, this absolute tolerance is multiplied by \((\mathtt{ref\_ratio})^2\) to account for the change in the absolute scale of the Laplacian operator. You can also specify an array of values for abs_tol, one for each possible level in the simulation, and then the scaling by \((\mathtt{ref\_ratio})^2\) is not applied.

• gravity.rel_tol : if gravity.gravity_type = PoissonGrav, this is the relative tolerance for the Poisson solve. By default it is zero. You can specify a single value for this tolerance and it will apply on every level, or you can specify an array of values for rel_tol, one for each possible level in the simulation. This replaces the old parameter gravity.ml_tol.

• gravity.max_multipole_order : if gravity.gravity_type = PoissonGrav, this is the max \(\ell\) value to use for multipole BCs (must be \(\geq 0\); default: 0)

• gravity.direct_sum_bcs : if gravity.gravity_type = PoissonGrav, evaluate BCs using exact sum (0 or 1; default: 0)

• gravity.drdxfac : ratio of dr for monopole gravity binning to grid resolution

The follow parameters affect the coupling of hydro and gravity:

• castro.do_grav : turn on/off gravity

• castro.moving_center : do we recompute the center used for the multipole gravity solver each step?

• castro.point_mass : point mass at the center of the star (must be \(\geq 0\); default: 0.0)

Note that in the following, MAX_LEV is a hard-coded parameter in Source/Gravity.cpp which is currently set to 15. It determines how many levels can be tracked by the Gravity object.

Types of Approximations

ConstantGrav

Gravity can be defined as constant in direction and magnitude, defined in the inputs file by:

gravity.const_grav = -9.8

for example, to set the gravity to have magnitude \(9.8\) in the negative \(y\)-direction if in 2D, negative \(z\)-direction if in 3-D. The actual setting is done in Gravity.cpp as:

grav.setVal(const_grav, AMREX_SPACEDIM-1, 1, ng);

Note that at present we do not fill the gravitational potential \(\phi\) in this mode; it will be set to zero.

Note: ConstantGrav can only be used along a Cartesian direction (vertical for 2D axisymmetric).

MonopoleGrav

MonopoleGrav integrates the mass distribution on the grid in spherical shells, defining an enclosed mass and uses this to compute the gravitational potential and acceleration in a spherically-symmetric fashion.

• In 1D spherical coordinates we compute

  \[g(r) = -\frac{G M_{\rm enclosed}}{ r^2}\]

  where \(M_{\rm enclosed}\) is calculated from the density at the time of the call.

  For levels above the coarsest level we define the extent of that level’s radial arrays as ranging from the center of the star (\(r=0\)) to the cell at that level farthest away from the origin. If there are gaps between fine grids in that range then we interpolate the density from a coarser level in order to construct a continuous density profile. We note that the location of values in the density profile and in the gravitational field exactly match the location of data at that level so there is no need to interpolate between points when mapping the 1D radial profile of \(g\) back onto the original grid.

• In 2D or 3D we compute a 1D radial average of density and use this to compute gravity as a one-dimensional integral, then interpolate the gravity vector back onto the Cartesian grid cells. At the coarsest level we define the extent of the 1D arrays as ranging from the center of the star to the farthest possible point in the grid (plus a few extra cells so that we can fill ghost cell values of gravity). At finer levels we first define a single box that contains all boxes on that fine level, then we interpolate density from coarser levels as needed to fill the value of density at every fine cell in that box. The extent of the radial array is from the center of the star to the nearest cell on one of the faces of the single box. This ensures that all cells at that maximum radius of the array are contained in this box.

  We then average the density onto a 1D radial array. We note that there is a mapping from the Cartesian cells to the radial array and back; unlike the 1D case this requires interpolation. We use quadratic interpolation with limiting so that the interpolation does not create new maxima or minima.

  The default resolution of the radial arrays at a level is the grid cell spacing at that level, i.e., \(\Delta r = \Delta x\). For increased accuracy, one can define gravity.drdxfac as a number greater than \(1\) (\(2\) or \(4\) are recommended) and the spacing of the radial array will then satisfy \(\Delta x / \Delta r =\) drdxfac. Individual Cartesian grid cells are subdivided by drdxfac in each coordinate direction for the purposing of averaging the density, and the integration that creates \(g\) is done at the finer resolution of the new \(\Delta r\).

  Note that the center of the star is defined in the subroutine probinit and the radius is computed as the distance from that center.

  Note

  there is an additional correction at the corners in make_radial_grav that accounts for the volume in a shell that is not part of the grid.

What about the potential in this case? when does make_radial_phi come into play?

PoissonGrav

The most general case is a self-induced gravitational field,

\[\mathbf{g}(\mathbf{x},t) = \nabla \phi\]

where \(\phi\) is defined by solving

(4)\[\mathbf{\Delta} \phi = 4 \pi G \rho\]

We only allow PoissonGrav in 2D or 3D because in 1D, computing the monopole approximation in spherical coordinates is faster and more accurate than solving the Poisson equation.

Poisson Boundary Conditions: 2D

In 2D, if boundary conditions are not periodic in both directions, we use a monopole approximation at the coarsest level. This involves computing an effective 1D radial density profile (on level = 0 only), integrating it outwards from the center to get the gravitational acceleration \(\mathbf{g}\), and then integrating \(g\) outwards from the center to get \(\phi\) (using \(\phi(0) = 0\) as a boundary condition, since no mass is enclosed at \(r = 0\)). For more details, see Section 2.2.

Poisson Boundary Conditions: 3D

The following describes methods for doing isolated boundary conditions. The best reference for Castro’s implementation of this is [49].

• Multipole Expansion

  In 3D, by default, we use a multipole expansion to estimate the value of the boundary conditions. According to, for example, Jackson’s Classical Electrodynamics (with the corresponding change to Poisson’s equation for electric charges and gravitational ”charges”), an expansion in spherical harmonics for \(\phi\) is

  (5)\[\phi(\mathbf{x}) = -G\sum_{l=0}^{\infty}\sum_{m=-l}^{l} \frac{4\pi}{2l + 1} q_{lm} \frac{Y_{lm}(\theta,\phi)}{r^{l+1}},\]

  The origin of the coordinate system is taken to be the center variable, that must be declared and stored in the probdata module in your project directory. The validity of the expansion used here is based on the assumption that a sphere centered on center, of radius approximately equal to the size of half the domain, would enclose all of the mass. Furthermore, the lowest order terms in the expansion capture further and further departures from spherical symmetry. Therefore, it is crucial that center be near the center of mass of the system, for this approach to achieve good results.

  The multipole moments \(q_{lm}\) can be calculated by expanding the Green’s function for the Poisson equation as a series of spherical harmonics, which yields

  \[q_{lm} = \int Y^*_{lm}(\theta^\prime, \phi^\prime)\, {r^\prime}^l \rho(\mathbf{x}^\prime)\, d^3x^\prime. \label{multipole_moments_original}\]

  Some simplification of (5) can be achieved by using the addition theorem for spherical harmonics:

  \[\begin{split}\begin{aligned} &\frac{4\pi}{2l+1} \sum_{m=-l}^{l} Y^*_{lm}(\theta^\prime,\phi^\prime)\, Y_{lm}(\theta, \phi) = P_l(\text{cos}\, \theta) P_l(\text{cos}\, \theta^\prime) \notag \\ &\ \ + 2 \sum_{m=1}^{l} \frac{(l-m)!}{(l+m)!} P_{l}^{m}(\text{cos}\, \theta)\, P_{l}^{m}(\text{cos}\, \theta^\prime)\, \left[\text{cos}(m\phi)\, \text{cos}(m\phi^\prime) + \text{sin}(m\phi)\, \text{sin}(m\phi^\prime)\right].\end{aligned}\end{split}\]

  Here the \(P_{l}^{m}\) are the associated Legendre polynomials and the \(P_l\) are the Legendre polynomials. After some algebraic simplification, the potential outside of the mass distribution can be written in the following way:

  \[\phi(\mathbf{x}) \approx -G\sum_{l=0}^{l_{\text{max}}} \left[Q_l^{(0)} \frac{P_l(\text{cos}\, \theta)}{r^{l+1}} + \sum_{m = 1}^{l}\left[ Q_{lm}^{(C)}\, \text{cos}(m\phi) + Q_{lm}^{(S)}\, \text{sin}(m\phi)\right] \frac{P_{l}^{m}(\text{cos}\, \theta)}{r^{l+1}} \right].\]

  The modified multipole moments are:

  \[\begin{split}\begin{aligned} Q_l^{(0)} &= \int P_l(\text{cos}\, \theta^\prime)\, {r^{\prime}}^l \rho(\mathbf{x}^\prime)\, d^3 x^\prime \\ Q_{lm}^{(C)} &= 2\frac{(l-m)!}{(l+m)!} \int P_{l}^{m}(\text{cos}\, \theta^\prime)\, \text{cos}(m\phi^\prime)\, {r^\prime}^l \rho(\mathbf{x}^\prime)\, d^3 x^\prime \\ Q_{lm}^{(S)} &= 2\frac{(l-m)!}{(l+m)!} \int P_{l}^{m}(\text{cos}\, \theta^\prime)\, \text{sin}(m\phi^\prime)\, {r^\prime}^l \rho(\mathbf{x}^\prime)\, d^3 x^\prime.\end{aligned}\end{split}\]

  Our strategy for the multipole boundary conditions, then, is to pick some value \(l_{\text{max}}\) that is of sufficiently high order to capture the distribution of mass on the grid, evaluate the discretized analog of the modified multipole moments for \(0 \leq l \leq l_{\text{max}}\) and \(1 \leq m \leq l\), and then directly compute the value of the potential on all of the boundary zones. This is ultimately an \(\mathcal{O}(N^3)\) operation, the same order as the monopole approximation, and the wall time required to calculate the boundary conditions will depend on the chosen value of \(l_{\text{max}}\).

  The number of \(l\) values calculated is controlled by gravity.max_multipole_order in your inputs file. By default, it is set to 0, which means that a monopole approximation is used. There is currently a hard-coded limit of \(l_{\text{max}} = 50\). This is because the method used to generate the Legendre polynomials is not numerically stable for arbitrary \(l\) (because the polynomials get very large, for large enough \(l\)).

• Direct Sum

  Up to truncation error caused by the discretization itself, the boundary values for the potential can be computed exactly by a direct sum over all cells in the grid. Suppose I consider some ghost cell outside of the grid, at location \(\mathbf{r}^\prime \equiv (x^\prime, y^\prime, z^\prime)\). By the principle of linear superposition as applied to the gravitational potential,

  \[\phi(\mathbf{r}^\prime) = \sum_{\text{ijk}} \frac{-G \rho_{\text{ijk}}\, \Delta V_{\text{ijk}}}{\left[(x - x^\prime)^2 + (y - y^\prime)^2 + (z - z^\prime)^2\right]^{1/2}},\]

  where \(x = x(i)\), \(y = y(j)\) and \(z = z(k)\) are constructed in the usual sense from the zone indices. The sum here runs over every cell in the physical domain (that is, the calculation is \(\mathcal{O}(N^3)\) for each boundary cell). There are \(6N^2\) ghost cells needed for the Poisson solve (since there are six physical faces of the domain), so the total cost of this operation is \(\mathcal{O}(N^5)\) (this only operates on the coarse grid, at present). In practice, we use the domain decomposition inherent in the code to implement this solve: for the grids living on any MPI task, we create six \(N^2\) arrays representing each of those faces, and then iterate over every cell on each of those grids, and compute their respective contributions to all of the faces. Then, we do a global reduce to add up the contributions from all cells together. Finally, we place the boundary condition terms appropriate for each grid onto its respective cells.

  This is quite expensive even for reasonable sized domains, so this option is recommended only for analysis purposes, to check if the other methods are producing accurate results. It can be enabled by setting gravity.direct_sum_bcs = 1 in your inputs file.

Point Mass

Pointmass gravity works with all other forms of gravity, it is not a separate option. Since the Poisson equation is linear in potential (and its derivative, the acceleration, is also linear), the point mass option works by adding the gravitational acceleration of the point mass onto the acceleration from whatever other gravity type is under in the simulation.

Note

The point mass may have a mass < 0

A useful option is point_mass_fix_solution. If set to 1, then it takes all zones that are adjacent to the location of the center variable and keeps their density constant. Any changes in density that occur after a hydro update in those zones are reset, and the mass deleted is added to the pointmass. (If there is expansion, and the density lowers, then the point mass is reduced and the mass is added back to the grid). This calculation is done in pointmass_update() in Castro_pointmass.cpp.

GR correction

In the cases of compact objects or very massive stars, the general relativity (GR) effect starts to play a role [2]. First, we consider the hydrostatic equilibrium due to effects of GR then derive GR-correction term for Newtonian gravity. The correction term is applied to the monopole approximation only when USE_GR = TRUE is set in the GNUmakefile.

The formulae of GR-correction here are based on [51]. For detailed physics, please refer to [69]. For describing very strong gravitational field, we need to use Einstein field equations

(6)\[R_{ik}-\frac{1}{2}g_{ik}R=\frac{\kappa}{c^{2}}T_{ik} \quad , \quad \kappa=\frac{8\pi G}{c^{2}}\quad ,\]

where \(R_{ik}\) is the Ricci tensor, \(g_{ik}\) is the metric tensor, \(R\) is the Riemann curvature, \(c\) is the speed of light and \(G\) is gravitational constant. \(T_{ik}\) is the energy momentum tensor, which for ideal gas has only the non-vanishing components \(T_{00}\) = \(\varrho c^2\) , \(T_{11}\) = \(T_{22}\) = \(T_{33}\) = \(P\) ( contains rest mass and energy density, \(P\) is pressure). We are interested in spherically symmetric mass distribution. Then the line element \(ds\) for given spherical coordinate \((r, \vartheta, \varphi)\) has the general form

\[\label{metric} ds^{2} = e^{\nu}c^{2}dt^{2}-e^{\lambda}dr^{2}-r^{2}(d\vartheta^{2}+\sin^{2} \vartheta d\varphi) \quad ,\]

with \(\nu = \nu(r)\), \(\lambda = \lambda(r)\). Now we can put the expression of \(T_{ik}\) and \(ds\) into (6), then field equations can be reduced to 3 ordinary differential equations:

(7)\[\frac{\kappa P}{c^{2}} = e^{-\lambda}\left (\frac{\nu^{\prime}}{r}+\frac{1}{r^{2}} \right )-\frac{1}{r^{2}} \quad ,\]

(8)\[\frac{\kappa P}{c^{2}} = \frac{1}{2}e^{-\lambda}\left (\nu^{\prime\prime}+\frac{1}{2}{\nu^{\prime}}^{2}+\frac{\nu^ {\prime}-\lambda^{\prime}}{r} -\frac{\nu^{\prime}\lambda^{\prime}}{2} \right ) \quad ,\]

(9)\[\kappa \varrho = e^{-\lambda}\left (\frac{\lambda^{\prime}}{r}-\frac{1}{r^{2}}\right )+\frac{1}{r^{2}} \quad ,\]

where primes means the derivatives with respect to \(r\). After multiplying with \(4\pi r^2\), (9) can be integrated and yields

\[\label{gmass1} \kappa m = 4\pi r (1-e^{-\lambda}) \quad ,\]

the \(m\) is called “gravitational mass” inside r defined as

\[\label{gmass2} m = \int_{0}^{r}4\pi r^{2} \varrho dr\quad .\]

For the \(r = R\), \(m\) becomes the mass \(M\) of the star. \(M\) contains not only the rest mass but the whole energy (divided by \(c^2\)), that includes the internal and gravitational energy. So the \(\varrho = \varrho_0 +U/c^2\) contains the whole energy density \(U\) and rest-mass density \(\varrho_0\). Differentiation of (7) with respect to \(r\) gives \(P = P^{\prime}(\lambda,\lambda^{\prime}, \nu,\nu^{\prime},r)\), where \(\lambda,\lambda^{\prime},\nu,\nu^{\prime}\) can be eliminated by (7), (8), (9). Finally we reach Tolman-Oppenheinmer-Volkoff (TOV) equation for hydrostatic equilibrium in general relativity:

(10)\[\frac{dP}{dr} = -\frac{Gm}{r^{2}}\varrho \left (1+\frac{P}{\varrho c^{2}}\right )\left (1+\frac{4\pi r^3 P}{m c^{2}}\right ) \left (1-\frac{2Gm}{r c^{2}} \right)^{-1} \quad .\]

For Newtonian case \(c^2 \rightarrow \infty\), it reverts to usual form

\[\label{newton} \frac{dP}{dr} = -\frac{Gm}{r^{2}}\varrho \quad .\]

Now we take effective monopole gravity as

(11)\[\tilde{g} = -\frac{Gm}{r^{2}} (1+\frac{P}{\varrho c^{2}})(1+\frac{4\pi r^3 P}{m c^{2}}) (1-\frac{2Gm}{r c^{2}})^{-1} \quad .\]

For general situations, we neglect the \(U/c^2\) and potential energy in m because they are usually much smaller than \(\varrho_0\). Only when \(T\) reaches \(10^{13} K\) (\(KT \approx m_{p} c^2\), \(m_p\) is proton mass) before it really makes a difference. So (11) can be expressed as

\[\label{tov3} \tilde{g} = -\frac{GM_{\rm enclosed}}{r^{2}} \left (1+\frac{P}{\varrho c^{2}} \right )\left (1+\frac{4\pi r^3 P}{M_{\rm enclosed} c^{2}} \right ) \left (1-\frac{2GM_{\rm enclosed}}{r c^{2}} \right )^{-1} \quad ,\]

where \(M_{enclosed}\) has the same meaning as with the MonopoleGrav approximation.

Hydrodynamics Source Terms

There are several options to incorporate the effects of gravity into the hydrodynamics system. The main parameter here is castro.grav_source_type.

• castro.grav_source_type = 1 : we use a standard predictor-corrector formalism for updating the momentum and energy. Specifically, our first update is equal to \(\Delta t \times \mathbf{S}^n\) , where \(\mathbf{S}^n\) is the value of the source terms at the old-time (which is usually called time-level \(n\)). At the end of the timestep, we do a corrector step where we subtract off \(\Delta t / 2 \times \mathbf{S}^n\) and add on \(\Delta t / 2 \times \mathbf{S}^{n+1}\), so that at the end of the timestep the source term is properly time centered.

• castro.grav_source_type = 2 : we do something very similar to 1. The major difference is that when evaluating the energy source term at the new time (which is equal to \(\mathbf{u} \cdot \mathbf{S}^{n+1}_{\rho \mathbf{u}}\), where the latter is the momentum source term evaluated at the new time), we first update the momentum, rather than using the value of \(\mathbf{u}\) before entering the gravity source terms. This permits a tighter coupling between the momentum and energy update and we have seen that it usually results in a more accurate evolution.

• castro.grav_source_type = 3 : we do the same momentum update as the previous two, but for the energy update, we put all of the work into updating the kinetic energy alone. In particular, we explicitly ensure that \((\rho e)\) remains the same, and update \((\rho K)\) with the work due to gravity, adding the new kinetic energy to the old internal energy to determine the final total gas energy. The physical motivation is that work should be done on the velocity, and should not directly update the temperature—only indirectly through things like shocks.

• castro.grav_source_type = 4 : the energy update is done in a “conservative” fashion. The previous methods all evaluate the value of the source term at the cell center, but this method evaluates the change in energy at cell edges, using the hydrodynamical mass fluxes, permitting total energy to be conserved (excluding possible losses at open domain boundaries). See [48] for some more details.

[2]

Note: The GR code and text here were contributed by Ken Chen of Univ. of Minnesota.